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Guide To Different Kinds Of Essays

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Writing Papers

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Comprehension Of Essay Writing Is The First Step In Your Writing Career

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How To Write A Perfect Essay Outline

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Research Papers on the Belt and Road Initiative

<h1>Research Papers on the Belt and Road Initiative</h1><p>The Belt and Road Initiative is a program for creating nations, which was propelled in 2020 by the Chinese President Xi Jinping. The program focuses on the nations in Central Asia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, South East Asia, and South Pacific. A few research papers, both short and long haul, on the venture were done, and these are introduced here.</p><p></p><p>The Belt and Road Initiative are one of the most discussed activities existing apart from everything else. In an as of late discharged narrative film, the President of Kazakhstan asserts, 'The Belt and Road Initiative is an incredible open door for me, for my nation, and for the whole world.' A narrative on the activity has been discharged toward the finish of March; it clarifies that it will make another time of quiet participation among China and its neighbors, while squeezing the United States.</p>&l t;p></p><p>The roadway extends for approximately twelve thousand kilometers from China to Central Asia. As I brought up in a past post, this is sufficient to frame the greatest land fringe on the planet. It likewise matches with the greatest exchange course for the last 6,000 years, the Silk Road. The Chinese have set up another significant thruway, the East Asia High-Speed Railway, to give network between the Belt and Road and the European continent.</p><p></p><p>One of the best research papers on the activity was composed by Thomas Pitney, an educator of open undertakings at Claremont McKenna College, and a member in the activity. He arrived at the resolution that the Belt and Road Initiative are the 'most huge advancement in exchange arrangement since the Great American Interstate System and the approach of worldwide commerce.'</p><p></p><p>He likewise brings up that the activity gives the perfect stage to worldwide t hriving. It will carry immense measures of merchandise to Central Asia and into China. This could make the establishment for the possible development of foundation and railways for the remainder of the world, which could take hundreds of years to complete.</p><p></p><p>The street activity will likewise give a chance to the Chinese to cooperate with different nations of Central Asia. They are additionally liable to fabricate mechanical parks and present day air terminals at a few key areas, to encourage exchange. This is the most significant thought behind the activity. The activity makes Central Asia one of the quickest developing districts in the world.</p><p></p><p>A scarcely any other research papers on the activity remember an examination for the monetary job of the activity, investigation of the potential results, and an examination on the social effect of the activity. All these are remembered for an ongoing report by a business think tank called the Frontier Group. One of the truly intriguing thoughts they raise is utilizing the activity as a methods for making 'another unitary worldwide market, another borderless universal monetary space,' and the 'production of another worldview for how exchange and account are done.'</p>

The Basic Principles of Us Government Essay Topics That You Can Benefit From Beginning Today

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Correlation and investigation of both essential gatherings in america government. </p> <p>You should uncover in your administration exposition that the legislature is a basic bit of our life and the manner in which it influences the few interests and addresses different worries throughout our life. It very well may be exceedingly testing to compose this sort of task, since i t requires a lot of exploration on a particular part of government and the manner in which it impacts the lives of US residents. The whole family is made to make significant penances which can affect their psychological prosperity. Medical caretaker professionals have one of the fastest developing vocations in the country, and we have the entirety of the information you have to comprehend about what things to foresee from nurture specialist school. </p>

Definitions of How to Better My Essay Writing

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The least complex way to deal with limited down a proposal and make a right contention is to acquire a basic framework before beginning composing your exposition. You will discover increasingly about the subject, and you'll have more jargon words to improve the essay.</p> <h2>How to Better My Essay Writing - the Story </h2> <p>A passage is a gathering of sentences related with parts of precisely the same point. Also, by contending for the opposite side of your supposition, you will realize which focuses you should better address in your article. A subject sentence is the underlying sentence in a passage, and it sum s up the rest of the section. For instance, understudies are foreseen to convey scholastic papers thus need to utilize proper language, sentence structure, tenses, and so forth </p> <h2> How to Better My Essay Writing - Is it a Scam? </h2> <p>Needless to state that a couple of people are good to go to do anything as opposed to composing an academical paper. 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The Essay Samples

<h1>The Essay Samples</h1><p>The test of order division article can assist you with building up your own paper by following basic advances. It ought to be sorted out in a consistent and syntactically right way, guaranteeing that your paper is liberated from botches. In the event that you have some trouble recorded as a hard copy the paper yourself, at that point you ought to request help from other students.</p><p></p><p>The tests of class division papers ought to incorporate the things that you have to remember for the exposition, for example, a concise presentation, brief meanings of key terms, presentation of exploration questions, making a rundown of sources, composing a blueprint and end. You ought to likewise be set up to think and put down the focuses in the most ideal manner. This may imply that you should invest some energy arranging and planning for the essay.</p><p></p><p>You ought not be reluctant to reques t help when composing the example of order division paper. On the off chance that you have a cohort who is as of now chipping away at a similar point, it would be valuable for you to request help so as to compose your own paper. The other favorable position of requesting help is that you may discover somebody with whom you can function admirably. You ought not expect that the entirety of your cohorts will have comparable methodologies recorded as a hard copy their essays.</p><p></p><p>Writing the example of order division exposition is an alternate encounter for every one of you. You should attempt to unwind and feel positive about request to get a decent outcome. Before you compose the exposition, it is a smart thought to record it and reconsider it later.</p><p></p><p>Try to recollect what made you cheerful or happy while you were composing and utilize these minutes to fill the last phase of the article. Remember to refresh the artic le at ordinary stretches. When you see that your understudy companion has changed the title, part or section you ought to get the opportunity to check the essay.</p><p></p><p>Itis significant that you permit a couple of days for every one of the example division expositions. In the event that you are taking a shot at a huge venture, you may require a little while before it is expected. Examine with your kindred understudies whether you should check the example of division expositions or not.</p><p></p><p>It is critical to invest some energy in your schoolwork task. Your cohorts are probably going to be anxious to see your endeavors so make the most of the chance. Perusing the model example article permits you to improve the style of your exposition and it likewise causes you comprehend the essentials of the composed English language.</p><p></p><p>In end, the examples of class division paper are the start of a ga inful connection among you and your schoolmates. At any rate one of you should begin composing papers as the others discover how simple it is.</p>

Is It Helpful to Use the Tree Map As a Pre-Writing Tool For What Essay?

<h1>Is It Helpful to Use the Tree Map As a Pre-Writing Tool For What Essay?</h1><p>The Tree Map is a pre-composing instrument for what paper. The exposition you composed before would consistently be the premise of what you will write in the paper you will compose now. However, in the event that you don't have the foggiest idea how to utilize it well, the main things you will do is simply draft off what you composed and begin modifying. You have to realize how to alter successfully with the goal that you can improve your article in no time.</p><p></p><p>First of all, you have to cause a rundown of the considerable number of things you to need to write in your paper. It may be an exceptionally short rundown yet it is significant that you center around this rundown so you won't be diverted with what else you need to do. From that point onward, you ought to find out about your subjects and the topic of your article. You ought not skirt this progr ession in light of the fact that once you find out about the subject, you will have the option to design your paper in a superior way.</p><p></p><p>Then, you have to peruse the composing rules and figure out how you have to compose your articles. Find out about what number of sentences, passages, and sentences per section you have to have. This will help you when you have to compose on a paper. You ought to likewise find out about the perspective, tone, and different words that could make your article additionally intriguing. There are a ton of highlights of your paper.</p><p></p><p>Before you begin to inquire about the apparatuses, you can begin utilizing the Tree Map as a pre-composing device for what article. You can basically download the substance of the article you will compose and glue it in the tree map. From that point, you can see the structure of the tree. From here, you can make an all the more remarkable outline.</p> <p></p><p>Once you know the request and configuration of the exposition, you can likewise utilize the Tree Map as a pre-composing device for what article. You can discover the piece of the article that would work best for you and make a full layout for that. From that point, you can begin composing a diagram of your essay.</p><p></p><p>The best thing about utilizing the Tree Map as a pre-composing instrument for what article is that you can utilize it at whatever point you need. You can utilize it during the readiness phase of your article or during the correction stage. You can likewise utilize it when you are first preparing to compose the essay.</p><p></p><p>If you utilize the Tree Map, you can improve your exposition quick. It will assist you with getting a more clear blueprint. What's more, you will likewise get more thoughts regarding the various components that will make up your article. In this way, utilize th e Tree Map as a pre-composing apparatus for what essay.</p>

Learn How to Assertiveness and Appropriate Confirmation - Learn the Right Way to Act When Someone Says Something Wrong

<h1>Learn How to Assertiveness and Appropriate Confirmation - Learn the Right Way to Act When Someone Says Something Wrong</h1><p>One of the most significant aptitudes you can create as a man or lady of each age is to figure out how to emphaticness and fitting affirmation. Numerous individuals have flopped in their professions since they had an absence of this aptitude, so on the off chance that you need to be effective throughout everyday life, at that point figure out how to utilize it.</p><p></p><p>Instead of retaliating when somebody isn't right, self-assuredness and fitting affirmation is the capacity to recognize something that is correct and give the other individual consent to express their real thoughts. For instance, on the off chance that a lady needs to talk, at that point react in an overall quite gracious way.</p><p></p><p>In a similar way, self-assuredness and suitable affirmation can be utilized by men to attest their point or sentiment. You may have a conflict with somebody about a subject and everything you can consider is the manner by which discourteous it is react. Be that as it may, when a man does likewise, he shows that he couldn't care less what others think and that his assessments and perspectives are valid.</p><p></p><p>People can differ with your choices, convictions and thoughts. At the point when you can perceive what you accept to be correct and concur with the individual, it causes you to show up additionally engaging. This is something ladies need from men, since you may be acceptable at sports however in the event that you don't concur with them, you will make them look bad.</p><p></p><p>Another reason you have to figure out how to confidence and fitting affirmation is the point at which your companion has an issue with you. On the off chance that you need to have an upbeat marriage, figure out how to be emphatic a nd be deferential and accommodating to unravel problems.</p><p></p><p>If your better half or spouse isn't getting the best possible assistance, at that point you have to step up and show that you have an issue with them so as to cause them to feel adored and acknowledged. Giving a limited quantity of regard, for example, that you'll deal with yourself first, is sufficient to give them you have an issue with them and that you are eager to change for the better.</p><p></p><p>As you get more established, it's significant that you figure out how to self-assuredness and proper affirmation. At the point when you experience life and become liable for the individuals you care about, it's significant that you figure out how to respect and regard their sentiments and contemplations as well.</p><p></p><p>You can figure out how to be self-assured and suitable affirmation and how to respect and acknowledge others with your d emeanor and conduct. By learning these abilities, you will tell your kids the best way to carry on in the correct manner, which can make a superior future for them.</p>

Metamorphic Viruses - Free Essay Example

Analysis and Detection Metamorphic Viruses Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation Metamorphic Viruses are very special type of viruses which have ability to reconstruct into entirely new offspring which is completely different than the parent; Main object to use these techniques to rebuild itself is to avoid detection by Antivirus Software. Although for the time being some well known metamorphic viruses are detectable, but it is predicted that in future we might face problem of similar viruses those would be capable of changing their identification and perform malicious tasks. Our objective in this thesis is to perform an in-depth analysis of metamorphic code, and evaluate some best practices for detection of metamorphic viruses. 1.2 Outline This document has been divided into five chapters; first two chapters are for introductory purpose it provides basic information about viruses in Chapter 2 we have tried to give some details about virus evolution how metamorphic viruses came into existence. Chapter 3 includes detailed information about metamorphic Virus, Formal definition, Core components of Architecture and some explanations from a virus writer about metamorphic viruses. Chapter 3 deals with some of techniques which are being used by metamorphic viruses and what advantages these viruses have using those techniques. Chapter 4 contains different type of detection methodologies used to detect metamorphic viruses. It also contains sample code from different metamorphic viruses for their feature comparison. Chapter 2 Computer Virus Introduction 2.1 Introduction The term Virus was first described by Dr. Fred Cohan in his PHD thesis during 1986[1] although different type of computer malware where already exited that time but the term was specifically introduced by Dr. Fred. Thats why in may research papers he is considered the father of Virus Research [2]. According to his formal definition as virus A program that can infect other programs by modifying them to include a possibly evolved copy of itself[1] Based on this definition we have taken some pseudo code of Virus V from his research [25]. program virus:= {1234567; subroutine infect-executable:= {loop:file = get-random-executable-file; if first-line-of-file = 1234567 then goto loop; prepend virus to file; } subroutine do-damage:= {whatever damage is to be done} subroutine trigger-pulled:= {return true if some condition holds} main-program:= {infect-executable; if trigger-pulled then do-damage; goto next;} next:} This is a typical example of a computer virus, we can divide this virus into three major parts first subroutine which is infect-executable it tries to look for and executable file or any other target file which it wants to infect it contains a loop which tried to append the virus body to with the target file. Second subroutine do-damage is the virus code its self for which virus has been written this is called virus payload upon execution it performs some damage to the system. The third subroutine trigger-pulled is some sort of trigger to execute the virus code it could be some condition based on date or system or file. Main code of virus is that once the condition is met we it should append itself to the target file and perform something. If we evaluate this definition modern viruses cannot be considered as virus because there are several different type of viruses which are not performing any harm such as â€Å"Co-Virus†, their main target is to help the original virus by performing such t asks so the execution of original virus could be performed without being detected. Peter Szor has redefined this definition [2] as â€Å"A computer virus is a program that recursively and explicitly copies a possibly evolved version of itself.† This definition is also self explanatory, as the author suggest it recursively and explicitly search for the target files and then infect them with virus code to make possible copies. As we are all aware virus is special kind of malware which always requires a user attention to propagate such as either he access the infracted file or tries to execute infected files. Grimes[26] append this definition with boot sector information and other methodologies as Viruses are not limited to file infections only. 2.1.1 Different Type of Malware In this section we will try to discuss some type of malware which like virus but they are not virus. This section is for information purpose only. Viruses its self could be of different kind based on their activity we can define their category, such as boot sector virus, File Infection Virus or some of advanced Macro Viruses which are used inside Microsoft Office documents to automate the process. Basically all virus follow the same process of infection which is described by Dr. Fred Cohen in V Sample Virus. We will define some of advanced code armoring techniques in Section 2.2. 2.1.1.1 Trojans Trojans are very famous backdoor malware some time they are not considered as virus as their main objective is to let attacker gain access to the target machine without getting noticed by the user. Their main objective is not only to gain access but it could be executing some sort of malicious code. Origin of their name is from Greek History where a giant horse was built to gain access inside the castle and transport soldiers through that horse. Same technique is used with Trojans they tricked users by displaying something on screen and behind it is doing something else. Trojan does not infect files or attach their code to other files usually they contain some sort to joiner utility which help users to embed their code or application inside the Trojan. Trojans can used to gain access to infected systems, mounting share drives or disturbing network traffic through Denial of Services attacks. Some famous examples of Trojans are Netbus, Subseven, Deep Throat ,Beast etc. Some remote administration Trojans can have their client side which can be used to communicate to the infected computer. Above image is Client side of Beast Trojan which can perform so many operations on the target machine once it is connected. 2.1.1.2 Spyware and Adware Spyware are very common problem of todays internet user. They are used to get information about users and monitor their activity with or without his knowledge. Till now antivirus companies are unable to define detection and removal of spyware software because there are some famous companies who are selling spyware software to monitor user activities and they are getting legal support to protect spyware from getting removed by antivirus. With spyware it is quite possible that without user knowledge they transport all user information and activities to some monitoring email address. There is some sort of spyware which are only used to get all key press events by users whatever he is typing or writing in email or entering password. It will be recorded and based on the software settings it can be sent to email or saved on disk. Adware are slightly different than malware they collect information about users internet activity and based on that they tries to display target advertisemen t to the users or install some software on users system which displays unwanted advertisement to the user. 2.1.1.3 Rootkits Root kits are specially crafted virus; their main objective is to gain administrative level access on the target system. Usually they contain some virus or script to execute the malicious code on target machine, enable root level access for the attacker and hide the process, allowing attacker full access to machine without getting noticed. Detailed information about root kits is beyond the topic. Based on their functionality we can say that they hijack the target system and monitor all system calls. They are now capable of patching kernel also so attacker can get higher level of permissions. Security researchers have demonstrated a new technology called â€Å"Blue-Pill†[27] which has helped them creating a super root kit without getting any performance degradation or system restart. They have used virtualization support inside processor to run in a virtual machine mode. 2.1.1.4Worms Worms are considered as the most advanced version of malware unlike virus they do not require any user interaction to propagate, but like virus they can replicate their code by infecting other target files. They can be combined with Trojan horses to execute on target machine. But unlike virus they are always dependent on some software for their execution without that specific software they cannot perform their actions. These try to exploit vulnerabilities of software or operating system to perform malicious actions. Love Bug is one of famous worm example it used Microsoft Emailing software to distribute its copies. CodeRed and Nimda are some other examples which used Microsoft protocols to distribute and infect other systems. 2.2 Virus Evolution Viruses are evolved throughout the time thats why today we are dealing with the most advanced type of viruses of all time. Most of time researchers are challenged by the virus writers to detect their created virus and create vaccine for it. In the following section we will describe some of the techniques which are used by virus to satisfy the main objective of Virus writer that is â€Å"Make Virus Completely Undetectable†. From time to time they have used different techniques in this section we will discuss those techniques and how those techniques lead toward metamorphic viruses. 2.2.1 Encryption Encryption is the main sources of information hiding. It has been used some centuries the same way virus writers are using encryption to avoid detection by antivirus. A decryptor is attached with the main virus code to decryp the virus body and performs the action. lea si, Start ; position to decrypt (dynamically set) mov sp, 0682 ; length of encrypted body (1666 bytes) Decrypt: xor [si],si ; decryption key/counter 1 xor [si],sp ; decryption key/counter 2 inc si ; increment one counter dec sp ; decrement the other jnz Decrypt ; loop until all bytes are decrypted Start: ; Encrypted/Decrypted Virus Body The above code is from [5] for Cascade Virus. In the same article the author has suggested four major reasons why some virus writer will use encryption: 1-Prevention against code analysis: With encryption it becomes quite difficult to disassemble the virus code and examining the code for instructions which can be quite interesting for the virus researc hers. For example if someone is performing specific operations such as calling INT 26H or calling specific Crypto API. By using encryption users will bet get an idea about what are the intentions of users because most of file contents will be encrypted and it is quite possible it may contain some Junk Code also. 2-Making disassembling more difficult: Virus writers can used encryption not only to make it difficult they can also us to make this process more time consuming and difficult they can include more junk code inside or wrong instruction so the researchers will not be able to perform static analysis of code and get some confusing idea about the code itself. 3-Making virus temper proof: Same like real life business products some virus writers do not want their virus code to be used by others with their name or generate new variant from their code because it is quite possible someone will decrypt virus and again generate another virus by modifying the code. This is also som e sort of prevention from reverse engineering the virus. 4-Avoid detection: This is the core objective of virus write to evade detection by Anti Virus software, based on time to time new techniques have been developed in following section we will discuss some of these techniques how they use encryption. Mostly the virus contains the decryptor within their code this had helped the Virus researchers to detect viruses based on their decryption signature. But this method is not very successful as it may raise an exception in case some other software tries to use similar methodologies to decrypt data. As time evolved they have developed some new interesting techniques. Most of time in assembly they use simply XOR ing operations help then in decrypting virus code. For example in above code of Cascade Virus it is using XOR to decrypt each byte of virus code unless all body is decrypted. With XOR they have some advantage first of all it is very simple operating and second XOR ing the same values twice yields the first value this operating can help them in decryption and making it more confusing during static code analysis. Peter Szor has described some of these strategies which can be used to make process of encryption and decryption more difficult [2-Chapter7], according to him: * Virus Writers are not require to store decryption key inside the virus body some advanced virus such as RDA.Fighter generate their decryption key upon execution. This technique is called Random Key Decryption. They use brute force method to generate key during run-time. These Viruses are very hard to detect. * It is under control by the attacker how he wants to modify the flow of decryption algorithm, it can be forward or backward or it is also possible to have multiple loops inside a single body. Or multiple layers of encryption. Second most important factor is the key size which can make decryption process more difficult based on the key length. Obfuscation is another factor i nvolved in it. In Metamorphic Viruses Similie.D was one of the virus which used non-linear encryption and decrypts the virus body in semi-random order and most important thing is that it access the encrypted portion of virus body only once.[3] * There is another factor involved in virus encryption such as virus is encrypted with very strong algorithm such as IDEA virus [9] which contains several decryptors. Main source of interest is that it is quite easy to detect virus and remove it but it is extremely difficult to repair the infected file as on second layer of IDEA it uses RDA for key generation. * Microsoft Crypto API is part of Windows operating system. This can also be used for malicious purpose, Virus writers can use Crypto API to encrypt data with some secret key or call their API through virus code to perform encryption. It is also difficult to detect this because other program such as Internet Explorer also uses this API to encrypt transmission over secure channel. * There is another variation in decryption which was demonstrated by W95/Silcer Virus that the first portion of virus which is already decrypted force Windows Loader to relocate infected software images once they are executed loaded in to memory. For the purpose of decryption the virus itself transfers relocation information. * There are other possibilities such as some virus use file name as their decryption key in such case if file name is modified virus cannot execute and there is possibility we will not be able to recover that file after infection. Other methods such as it can use decryptor code itself as decryption key it help them in such condition if someone is analyzing code or virus execution is under a debugger it will raise an exception. 2.2.2 Oligomorphism With encrypted virus it is quite possible to find the decryption mechanism to challenge this situation virus writers implemented a new technique to create multiple decryptors and use them randomly while they are infecting other files. Major difference between Encryption and Oligomorphism is that in encryption is uses same decryptor for encryption purpose while in oligomorphic virus have multiple decryptors and they can use any of them during the process. Whale Virus was first of this kind to use multiple decryptors. W95/Memorial[7] is one of very famous examples of oligomprphic viruses it uses 96 different type of decryptors. mov ebp,00405000h ; select base mov ecx,0550h ; this many bytes lea esi,[ebp+0000002E] ; offset of Start add ecx,[ebp+00000029] ; plus this many bytes mov al,[ebp+0000002D] ; pick the first key Decrypt: nop ; junk nop ; junk xor [esi],al ; decrypt a byte inc esi ; next byte nop ; junk inc al ; slide the key dec ecx ; are there any more bytes to decrypt? jnz Decrypt ; until all bytes are decrypted jmp Start ; decryption done, execute body ; Data area Start: ; encrypted/decrypted virus body Sliding key feature can also be noted as with this feature it is quite possible to change instructions for decryptor. If we get other instance of same virus it has little variations there is a little change in loop instruction Another Variant of W95 Memorial mov ecx,0550h ; this many bytes mov ebp,013BC000h ; select base lea esi,[ebp+0000002E] ; offset of Start add ecx,[ebp+00000029] ; plus this many bytes mov al,[ebp+0000002D] ; pick the first key Decrypt: nop ; junk nop ; junk xor [esi],al ; decrypt a byte inc esi ; next byte nop ; junk inc al ; slide the key loop Decrypt ; until all bytes are decrypted jmp Start ; Decryption done, execute body ; Data area Start: ; Encrypted/decrypted virus body . It has been mentioned [2] that a virus is onl y called Oligomorphic if it can mutate its decryptor slightly. Detecting Oligomorphic virus is extremely difficult because as they have random decryptors it is quite possible that our virus detecting mechanism will not able to detect if there are quite large number of decryptors. 2.2.3 Polymorphism The term Polymorphism came from Greek origin Poly means multiple and morphi means forms. We can say that these types of viruses can take multiple forms. They are much advanced than their ancestors like Oligomorphic virus they rely on mutating their decryptor in such a way so it generates number of variation of same virus. Core of their operation is their engine which helps them in mutating. For each infection their mutation engine generates a completely new instruction set for decrypter. This process help them in generating a completely new virus having exact functionality as their parents but the sequence of instruction is entirely different from others[28]. Antivirus software are challenged by their method as every time a new file is infected it generated a new encryption code and decryptor so those software who are relying on virus decryptor signature will not be able to detect those viruses as new offspring are completely different in decryptors signature. Research has alrea dy shown that it is possible for a mutation engine to generate several million different type of decryptor code for new viruses [28]. Dark Mutation Engine is one of very famous example of polymorphic virus following code has been taken from [2]. mov bp,A16C ; This Block initializes BP ; to Start-delta mov cl,03 ; (delta is 0x0D2B in this example) ror bp,cl mov cx,bp mov bp,856E or bp,740F mov si,bp mov bp,3B92 add bp,si xor bp,cx sub bp,B10C ; Huh finally BP is set, but remains an ; obfuscated pointer to encrypted body Decrypt: mov bx,[bp+0D2B] ; pick next word ; (first time at Start) add bx,9D64 ; decrypt it xchg [bp+0D2B],bx ; put decrypted value to place mov bx,8F31 ; this block increments BP by 2 sub bx,bp mov bp,8F33 sub bp,bx ; and controls the length of decryption jnz Decrypt ; are all bytes decrypted? Start: ; encrypted/decrypted virus body Idea behind making a code engine was that in beginning virus writing was very difficult and time consuming so the experienced virus writers helped novice in virus generating by giving them code mutation engine with little modification they can use this engine within their own virus code and it can perform same operations. Based on the virus type and engine capabilities it can enhance the virus functionality there are several viruses which can use Microsoft CryptoAPI in their polymorphic operations. Marburg is also one of very famous polymorphic virus which has entirely different mechanism in file infection. till now we could think that infection method if polymorphic virus could be same just decryptor is changing but that virus introduced some of new methodologies like key length in encryption could be different and each file which it is infecting is using different encryption mechanism.[8] Start: ; Encrypted/Decrypted Virus body is placed here Routine-6: dec esi ; decrement loop counter ret Routine-3: mov esi,439FE661h ; set loop counter in ESI ret Routine-4: xor byte ptr [edi],6F ; decrypt with a constant byte ret Routine-5: add edi,0001h ; point to next byte to decrypt ret Decryptor_Start: call Routine-1 ; set EDI to Start call Routine-3 ; set loop counter Decrypt: call Routine-4 ; decrypt call Routine-5 ; get next call Routine-6 ; decrement loop register cmp esi,439FD271h ; is everything decrypted? jnz Decrypt ; not yet, continue to decrypt jmp Start ; jump to decrypted start Routine-1: call Routine-2 ; Call to POP trick! Routine-2: pop edi sub edi,143Ah ; EDI points to Start ret There are examples of other viruses which shows that 2.2.4 Metamorphism After all these evolution in virus, now we are dealing with one of the most advanced version of these viruses. Polymorphic viruses were really challenging to detect and remove from system, but it was just a matter of time Researchers tried to build solutions against polymorphic viruses. Viruses writer tired to work on something really amazing a virus which would be able to rebuild itself with same functionality but entirely different from the parent. This proposed solution was first implemented in W32/Apparition, If it finds a compiler in some machine it tries to rebuild itself into completely new shape. Following code has been taken from [2] two different variants of W95/Regswap . This virus was first of its kind to implement metamorphism in shifting registers. a.) 5A pop edx BF04000000 mov edi,0004h 8BF5 mov esi,ebp B80C000000 mov eax,000Ch 81C288000000 add edx,0088h 8B1A mov ebx,[edx] 899C8618110000 mov [esi+eax*4+00001118],ebx b.) 58 pop eax BB04000000 mov ebx,0004h 8BD5 mov edx,ebp BF0C000000 mov edi,000Ch 81C088000000 add eax,0088h 8B30 mov esi,[eax] 89B4BA18110000 mov [edx+edi*4+00001118],esi Although till now there is no big incident reported due to metamorphism as normal computers do not contain such utilities like compilers or scripting support to rebuild virus but this situation could be very dangerous for Linux machine where scripting languages and compilers are enabled by default. Upcoming versions of Microsoft Windows are also having support of .Net and MSIL which is capable of generating such virus very easily MSIL/Gastropod is one of famous example of metamorphic virus. In upcoming section we will describe main architecture of metamorphic viruses. Chapter 3 Metamorphic Virus Architecture The idea behind metamorphic legacies came from the same biological aspect that the parents are mutating and generating new offsprings which are entirely different than their parents but they are performing the same actions as their parents were doing. Virus Writers have adopted the same idea and implemented in the form of metamorphic virus. Power of any virus relies in its power to bypass the Antivirus Scanner and perform actions. Usually constants in their virus body, specific register allocation, patterns or heuristics scanning are some of the common ways to detect a virus. Metamorphic Viruses are one of those kinds which are capable of transforming their code into new generation, these viruses are capable of changing their syntax but their semantics remain same throughout generations. Polymorphic viruses were difficult to detect but their main weakness was their decryption mechanism once researchers found their decryption methodology and add this as a signature to antivirus p roducts through this they were able to detect full generation of polymorphic virus but in case of metamorphic virus this approach fails because the syntax of code and mechanism of operation is entirely different throughout generations. They are considered as shape shifters [2] because each generation is entirely different than each other. Metamorphic engines are mostly buggy, this could be our luck that till now there is no perfect metamorphic engine available. It has been reported that metamorphism has been used as a mean of software security the same way it has been used in viruses to for their protection. They can be used stand alone by which they are self generating viruses and capable of performing actions on target system or they could take help from the surrounding environment in downloading some plug-in form internet or generating their new copies. Metamorphic viruses are capable of changing arrangement of their instruction. This ability gives them ability to generate new undetectable virus for examples if a virus contains n number of subroutines it will generate n! different type of generations. In case of BADBoy Virus it has 8 subroutines and it is capable of rearranging its subroutines it can generate 8! = 40320 type of different virus. This grows if number of subroutine increases inside the Virus Body. Above image is a code module of Badboy Virus in file it just need to take care of Entery Point whereregardless of where it is located remaining subroutines are access through jump instructions throughout the code. Zperm is another exam of metamorphic virus the above code sample is from Zperm virus which shows its rearrangement of code. 3.1 Formal Definition This formal definition is presented in [13] according to this definition let ?P(d,p) represented as a function which is going to be computed by a program P in the current environment (d,p) in this case p represents programs stored on computer and d represents data processed. D(d,p) and S(p) are two recursive functions , T(d,p) is a trigger and is an injury condition and I(d,p) is considered as injury condition. In Case of this we can say that pair (v,v) are recursive functions and( v and v) are metamorphic virus if all conditions X(v,v) satisfies. Where T(d,p) ,I(d,p),S(d,p) is entirely different than T'(d,p) ,I'(d,p),S'(d,p). Based on that we can say that v and v are metamorphic virus and they are performing same actions. Polymorphic Virus share their kernel but in metamorphic virus each virus has its own kernel. 3.2 Core Architecture In this section we will discuss major components of metamorphic virus, although there are several other components already explained but architecture represented in [10] is considered as best. According to original author they have divided metamorphic virus in to two categories close-world or open-world. Open World are those who integrate with executing environment and perform some actions such are download some spyware etc. Here we will describe functional architecture of closed world viruses. Most of them perform binary transformation. 3.2.1 Locate Own Code The virus must be able to locate its code from inside the infected file or its own body each time it is transforming into new form or infecting a new file, metamorphic virus which are infecting other files and use them as their carrier must be capable of locating their code from inside the infected file. Mostly in file they use some predefined location of their startup code this location is mostly constant and remains contestant throughout the other generations. There are only few incidents when Engine tries to put dynamic locations. 3.2.2 Decode Once the code of virus is located by metamorphic engine it tries to obtain some sort of blue print information about how to transform. Although this is one of the drawback of metamorphic virus that within them self it they contain their architecture about how they are getting transformed. This information is very critical because this information is further encoded inside body of new virus. This unit can also retrieve information about flags, bit-vectors, markers, hints which will help in building new viruses. There is a drawback of this approach as it is required by the virus engine itself so virus write cannot obfuscate this area. 3.2.3 Analyze Once the core information is gathered there is other information which is very critical for proper execution of metamorphic virus. Without this information transformation cannot be performed. Metamorphic engine must have information about the register liveliness. If it is not available from Decode phase the engine must be capable of constructing it via def-use analysis. Control Flow Graph is also required by transformation phase because this will help in the rewriting logic and flow of the program. Control Flow graph is required in case if the malware itself is capable of generating the code which can shrink or grow in new generations and also it is required to process the control flow logic which is further transformed into code. In the following code it has gather its main idea about code what it is required to perform and it is further transforming it to simplified instructions. 1) mov [esi+4], 9 mov [esi+4], 6 add [esi+4], 3 2) mov [ebp+8], ecx push eax mov eax, ecx mov [ebp+8], eax pop eax 3) push 4 mov eax, 4 push eax 4) push eax push eax mov eax, 2Bh 3.2.4 Transform This unit is most important area of virus as it is capable of generating new virus. Most of virus logic resides here. This unit generate new instruction blocks semantically which are exactly same like its code but syntax is a bit different. Here some sort of obfuscation is also performed, metamorphic engine tries to rename registers , inserts NOP and garbage instructions and reorder the execution of block. Following code block has been taken from their examples in [10]. 1) mov eax, 10 mov eax, 5 add eax,5 2) mov eax, 5 sub eax, 10 mov eax, 1 add eax, 2 sub eax, 8 3) mov eax, 5 add eax, 5 mov eax, 10 4) cmp eax, 5 ja L1 cmp eax, 2 je L2 cmp eax, 5 jb L3 L1 : mov ebx, 3 jmp L4 L2 : mov ebx, 10 jmp L4 L3 : mov ebx, 10 jmp L4 L4 cmp eax, 5 ja L1 cmp eax, 5 jb L2 L1 : mov ebx, 3 jmp L3 L2 : mov ebx, 10 jmp L3 L3 3.2.5 Attach Attach unit it only available in those viruses which infect files and use them as source of replication. Transform unit not only transforms own code but also the code of target file, where it sets some entry point to virus main routine. During the attachment process it also shuffle the code inside file but it contains jump instructions to different subroutine of virus code. 3.3 Architecture from Underground In [30] the virus author Benny has given some explanation of metamorphic engine. That what a good metamorphic engine should contain. He is member of famous virus writing group 29A. According to him a good metamorphic engine should contain following components. 1. Internal disassembler: This component will disassemble the virus code instruction. 2. Opcode shirker : This component will shrink instruction in such a way so two or more instructions could be embedded into one instruction 3. Opcode expander : This components will expand one line instruction into two or more 4. Opcode swapper : This component will swap any two instructions. 5. Relocator/recalculator : This component will relocate all information and flow of the program usually it contains all pointer and jump instruction and where it should go. 6. Garbager : This will insert the garbage instructions in the virus code. Chapter 4 Metamorphic Virus Obfuscation Techniques In the following section we will try to evaluate some of the techniques which are being used by metamorphic engines to transform new viruses and obfuscation purpose. These all techniques are used by metamorphic viruses to avoid detection by antivirus software. In [32] as comparison has been given for different metamorphic viruses following table displays that comparison. ZMist ZPerm Regswap MetaPHOR Evol Instruction substitution Yes Instruction permutation Yes Yes Yes Variable substitution Yes Yes Yes Yes Dead code insertion Yes Yes Yes Changing the control flow Yes Yes Yes This table showing which type of obfuscation technique is used by which metamorphic virus. 4.1 Instruction Substitution Metamorphic viruses are very intelligent they keep semantics of their parent and give their execution code a completely new face. Through this technique it tries to create a substitute instruction for execution. This technique has some drawback as the execution flow of program is not changing so this process can be detected through behavioral scanning. As due to this process code of virus code expand or shrink based on number of instructions increased or decreased from the parent code. push eax mov [edi], 0x04 jmp label push eax push ecx mov ecx, 0x04 mov [edi], ecx pop ecx jmp label 2 push 0x04 mov eax, 0x09 jmp label mov eax, 0x04 push eax mov eax, 0x09 jmp label 3 mov eax, 0x04 push eax jmp label mov eax, 0x04 push eax mov eax, 0x09 jmp label This example has been taken from [31] for W32.Evol virus which is a metamorphic virus. as we can see through example , the virus engine is trying to substitute co de through other instructions. If we perform static code analysis we yield same result but for virus scanner this becomes difficult to keep signature of every generated offspring. 4.2 Code Mutation Mutation is another feature of Virus code; either the code itself or the target file can mutate and generate something new. When a virus mutates it can keep its functionality but when it mutates the infected file then there are chances that after removal of infection the file will not be usable. For mutation purpose metamorphic engine executes the code morphing routine which executes and replaces the code inside file. Some sort of mutations could be arithmetic or Boolean operations. mov edi, 2580774443 mov ebx, 467750807 sub ebx, 1745609157 sub edi, 150468176 xor ebx, 875205167 push edi xor edi, 3761393434 push ebx push edi mov ebx, 535699961 mov edx, 1490897411 xor ebx, 2402657826 mov ecx, 3802877865 xor edx, 3743593982 add ecx, 2386458904 push ebx push edx push ecx Above example is taken from [29] and it s code from Win9x.ZMorph.A Virus where it is mutating. Another example of mutation can be Win95.Bistro virus which mutate s its host file also [20] 4.3 Permutation Permutation is another way of obtaining obfuscation in metamorphic viruses. W95.Ghost and W95.Zperm are one of those examples who are using permutation for obfuscation. In this method virus code remains constant just only the subroutines are reordered as we already explained if a virus contains n number of subroutine that virus can have !n number of permutations. In [16] it has been mentioned that through this method code is divided into frames and than those frames are randomly connected through jump instructions. In [17] it has been mentioned that this method has a drawback that it could be detected by signature. The author has also suggested that the Opcode must be arranged in such a way so it matches the region of Opcode. And perform permutation on each sequence of code before they are getting aligned. We can use the same example for permutation, which can display arrangement of the virus subroutines. Virus can make detection more difficult if they insert junk instructions b etween those frames. 4.4 Substitution of Variables Same like instruction substitution there is another process which can be performed that is variable substitution. W95.Regswap is performing this type of substitution [14]. For example mov eax,0 could be replaced by mov ecx,0 etc. 4.5 Garbage Insertion This is considered the most advanced method of obfuscation; this is used to generate some junk code just to confuse the debugger. Through this method virus writer make their code camouflage so the scanner is unable to locate hexadecimal signatures of virus from it. Inserting garbage instructions inside code does not make any changes to functionality of virus. There are several type of code which is considered as junk such as code which is not computing anything or code which is just exchanging registers again and again. Win32/Evol is considered the first metamorphic virus which was capable of inserting junk code to next generation. in earlier generation it contains this code. This sample code is taken from [20]. C7060F000055 mov [esi], 5500000Fh C746048BEC5151 mov [esi+0004], 5151EC8Bh Once it transformed in to new generation we found BF0F00055 mov edi, 5500000Fh 893E mov [esi], edi 5F pop edi ; garbage 52 push edx ; garbage B640 mov dh, 40 ; garbage BA8B EC5151 mov edx, 5151EC8Bh 53 push ebx ; garbage 8BDA mov ebx, edx 895E04 mov [esi+0004}, ebx If we perform a static analysis code both code , In functionality both are performing same operation but the second code is more difficult to understand and confusing the debugger to generate any specific signature for virus. W95/Bistro is another example of junk code insertion which does not include junk code it just inserts nop instruction inside subroutines. Through these techniques it bypasses the emulation scanning method. Unconditional Jump instructions are also considered as garbage the following example is taken from [29] pop edx mov edi,0004h mov esi,ebp mov eax,000Ch pop edx jmp label1 label2: jmp label3 label1: mov edi,0004h mov esi,ebp jmp label2 label3: mov eax,000Ch 4.6 Control Flow Modification Control flow modification is another important feature of metamorphic viruses. Like permutation they can rearrange their subroutine but they are also capable of changing their flow of execution. for this purpose they are implementing different methodologies. Win95/RegSwap was first of its kind which was using different registers in next generations [16]. Following code has been taken from [16] , two different generations : 5A pop edx BF04000000 mov edi,0004h 8BF5 mov esi,ebp B80C000000 mov eax,000Ch 81C288000000 add edx,0088h 8B1A mov ebx,[edx] 899C8618110000 mov [esi+eax*4+00001118],ebx 58 pop eax BB04000000 mov ebx,0004h 8BD5 mov edx,ebp BF0C000000 mov edi,000Ch 81C088000000 add eax,0088h 8B30 mov esi,[eax] 89B4BA18110000 mov [edx+edi*4+00001118],esi Another control flow modification can be done through Jump code insertion. In [17] it has given example of W95/Zperm which is capable of inserting jump code instruction in next generations . In research it has been shown that this virus does not have a constant body and it is virtually impossible to detect this virus using normal search string. Chapter 4 Metamorphic Code Detection In the following section we will try to evaluate some methodologies to detect metamorphic virus although till now there is no single method defined to detect metamorphic viruses. Due to their architecture and code transformation features we cannot predict exact specification of virus. But we can detect metamorphic viruses through combination of the following methodologies. 4.1 Weakness in Architecture We are lucky till now we have not faced any real problem with metamorphic viruses, core of their operation lies in its engine and still not any perfect metamorphic engine released for operation. There are several limitations in architecture of metamorphic virus; core objective of virus writer is to avoid detection and later avoid analysis of binary, in [33] author has described some of techniques which are used by metamorphic virus writer to avoid detection. Such as : * Attacking on disassembly : So it will not let disassemble virus code or confused the disassamber by inserting garbage code * Attacking on procedure abstraction: By using this method it will not let anybody get any idea about boundaries of the procedure. It is performed using jump and push instructions. * Attacking on Control Flow Graph generation: Through dynamic analysis of binary graphs are generated by detecting jump instructions throughout the code but through this method and unnecessary jump instructio ns will lead to confusing the CFG generating algorithm which result in generating unnecessary edges. * Attacking Data Flow Analysis: Like previous it tries to generate unnecessary edges. Usually each edge contains information about datasets and variable. To attack this data they try to store data somewhere outside the boundary of program. * Attacking property verification: Some antivirus make detection of virus through API calls if some specific API calls are made then there is a probability that some virus is calling, but this method can be exploited by using return address of API calls instead of calling method calls. This technique is used in W95/Evol. Based on these methodologies authors have suggested that we have a possibility to attack metamorphic virus we perform the same actions what they are performing, With this we will be capable of detecting their weak spots in their architecture [16]. In another study authors have suggested that using this method both virus wr iters and researchers have same theoretical limits. As we already explained in architecture of metamorphic code they need to decode and analyze their own code before they are transforming a new generation. This is the weakest point of their architecture which we can exploit. Regardless of how much obfuscation they use they still need to decode and analyze blueprint of virus code in somewhere on memory or file. And they have to write those transformations in the same sequence like its parent. In [15] it has been suggested if we generate some sort of reverse metamorphic software which is capable of analyzing the same process of analyzing code and reverse the transformations we are capable of detecting virus code from itself. But this information is still in theoretical phase as they virus researcher are required to have multiple generations of same virus to detect transformation and static data. 4.2 Detection Methodologies In the following section we will describe some of researched methodologies to detect metamorphic code. 4.2.1 Signature Based Detection This is very old methodology which is being used since first generation of antivirus. There are different methodologies of generating signatures for virus. Most of time it is being used with string searching for example it looks for specific hexadecimal string from within the infected file. There is a proposed method of Wild card and Half byte scanning [16]. This is also some sort of signature based detection. Lets take example of W95/Regswap Virus, which is using techniques of swapping registers in next generations. First generation: BE04000000 mov esi,000000004 8BDD mov ebx,ebp B90C000000 mov ecx,00000000C 81C088000000 add eax,000000088 8B38 mov edi,[eax] 89BC8B18110000 mov [ebx][ecx]*4[00001118],edi 2BC6 sub eax,esi 49 dec ecx Second generation: BB04000000 mov ebx,000000004 8BCD mov ecx,ebp BF0C000000 mov edi,00000000C 81C088000000 add eax,000000088 8B30 mov esi,[eax] 89B4B920110000 mov [ecx][edi]*4[00001120],esi 2BC3 sub eax ,ebx 4F dec edi Following code has been taken from [16]. If we carefully analyze both code fragments we can detect some of constant Opcode throughout different generations. We can use those specific constants as a signature to detect above virus. 4.2.1.1 Metamorphic Engine Signature This method is theoretically proposed to generate signature based on metamorphic engine [12]. This methodology is targeting the specific engine. It checks for the instruction substitution. These techniques are only effective for those viruses which are having finite set of instruction to transform their instruction semantics into new generations. They use the concept of likelihood and engine specific scoring. Such as, what will be the probability and likelihood is of code which is generated by engine. In this detection they software tries to gather information about the instructions which are going to be transformed or make some assumptions that it will transform into that specific code. In above image it is showing the probability of friendliness more information we have about the code more accurately we can detect the virus. W95/Evol there is a clue set of instruction substitution. Which type of instructions can be transformed into which. Same research methodologies are use d by the author to detect what is the possible offspring. 4.2.1.2 Limitations As we have already described in architecture different metamorphic malware use different type of techniques to change their shape. We cannot predict any specific string to detect metamorphic code. Due to permutation and obfuscation their inner code is not constant and even they dont have a constant body. Furthermore latest viruses are capable of changing their functionality so still we can have a finial signature which is capable of detecting single virus and all upcoming generations. 4.2.2 Heuristics Detections Heuristics scanner are very useful in detecting macro virus, They are also used to detect future viruses or virus family. usually this type of detection is just assumptions because it tries to assume that this is a possible infections in [2] author has described some of possible examples of heuristics scanning by which we can detect whether there is an infection * Code Entry point is somewhere else other than the starting point. * Size of Image is incorrect * Junk code is present or white spaces between sections of code * Suspicious section name or jump instructions * Multiple headers of file. With this method a scanner tries to check specific instructions from virus or possible infection in an infected file. in upcoming section we will describe some method to detect metamorphic virus using heuristics scanning. 4.2.2.1 Geometric Detection This method is defined in [16] this is a heuristics based scanning method. Using this method we try to evaluate which type of modification has been performed to the infected file. This type of scanning has been given name of Shape-Heuristics. For example in case of W95/Zmist virus it infects the file and increases the size of data section of PE file to at least 32K. As now they scanner has given indication that there is a possible infection of Zmist. Another example is given in [16] which is W96/Bistro which adds higher byte value to a lower field. 4.2.2.2 Limitations Heuristics based detections are always prone to false positive detections. such as in case of W95/Zmist there are chances if due to some change is file size the scanner detects it as a virus operation. There are several other limitations which could generate false positive results if some modification is occurred to file structure. 4.2.3 Code Emulation Code emulation uses the concept of virtual machine where it tries to simulate a virtual CPU and memory to test the virus for infection. It executes that virus inside that virtual machine [2] . Virtual machine is completely protective so code is not executing outside the environment. Virus scanner tries to detect information which are possibly to occur in case of infection. In [14] author has given an example of code emulation using ACG virus: mov ax, 65a1 xchg dx, ax mov ax, dx mov bp, ax add ebp, 69bdaa5f mov bx, bp xchg bl, dh mov bl, byte ptr ds:[43a5] xchg bl, dh cmp byte ptr gs:[b975], dh sub dh, byte ptr ds:[6003] mov ah, dh int 21 In above case when INT21h is reached the register is having values of ah=4a and bx=100, using this information we can detect ACG virus. In case of metamorphic virus we can take example of W95/Evol. As the virus it has hidden data inside and while transforming code it changes that code throughout generations . It tries to build constant data on stack. Although it contains variable data but it tries to rebuild its architecture on stack where it is in decrypted format where it has information about where and which API they need to call. Using emulation we can detect such type of information in a virtual machine. 4.2.3.1 Limitations The only limitation is that we are required to have constant data information about the virus otherwise in case of dynamic information this method fails. Permutation and obfuscation is a way to defeat this type of detection. For example if some virus is checking some outside link or some call which emulator cannot process it may alert the engine that it is being executed with in a virtual environment which will later halt its execution. 4.2.4 Detection by Disassembling If we can disassemble the virus code perfectly we can detect so many abnormalities which can indicate a possible infection of virus. Using some sort o heuristics scanning we can detect virus body but still we need to look for the executing code. In [16] Author has described some possible ways through which we can detect 4.2.4.1 De permutation of Subroutine We have seen the process of permutation where it tries to re-arrange subroutines. W95/Zmist contains RPME which stands of Real Permutation Engine. This can generate possible variants of virus through arrangement. Mostly these instructions and subroutines are scattered throughout the file and later linked to each other through jump instructions. We can counter this approach by using some sort of emulation before permutation occurs to construct the virus code before it is permuted and rearranged. Expertises are required in this technique as the researcher should able to analyze when it is required to halt the execution of code. 4.2.4.2 Detecting Dummy Loops In some virus they are using dummy loop insertion method this method is called macho technique. This technique is usually used again emulation. By detecting dummy loops through static analysis we can check what it is performing emulator will be busy in generating millions of do nothing and fake loop instructions. We are required to test what operations they are performing instead of looking for jump instructions. 4.2.4.3 Using Regular Expressions and DFA Through this method we try to detect virus by disassemble code and then try to matching code patterns using Regular Expressions and Deterministic Finite Automata. This technique has shown proven results again obfuscation. As we already know that Regular Expression are used in programming languages and code to test the input from user against some specified pattern. If that pattern is mated in regular expression it alerts the system. DFA is a technique in which we have a transition table which contains states and values of their next correspondence state. In this process we try to automate some process to generate some code. In this process we also use some sort of grammar which contains information about code or some set of rules of generating code. By using this method it tries to disassemble the virus code and tries to simulate the code of virus and build a new generation according to the rules already specified in grammar then at later stage using regular expressions and gram mar it tries to detect whether that pattern matches with existing virus code or not. Different component of DFA system may contains normalize which can insert garbage instructions, or depermutator which can reverse the process of permutation. Once it has process and simulated the virus code using DFA we can use our result sets to detect whether it is a virus or not. 4.2.5 Algebraic Specification This techniques was proposed by Webster and Malcolm in Journal of computer Virology[36]. Based on their researched they proposed that by using Algebraic specification of IA-32 Assembly Language we can detect metamorphic virus. They used OBJ specification which is an algebraic specification formalism and theorem proven and is base on order-sorted equation logic. They used obj to specify subset of IA-32 assembly language instruction for syntax and semantics of website. Furthermore they reduce instruction sets by elimination similar instructions from sequences. They used term of all morphs which are two different generations of same virus and have entirely different syntax but they are performing same operations. By using their technique it is possible to prove equivalence and semi-equivalence of different metamorphic generations. We can use this technique in Antivirus as emulation based dynamic analysis. Once they have signature of virus they can test it with other code segment wh ether this code segment is similar to virus signature or not. It may also generate some false positive results, 4.2.6 Neural Network and Hidden Markov Models This is an experimental research implemented by Wong and Stamp [35]. Hidden Markov Models are used for statistical pattern Analysis. They are commonly used in speech recognition, biological sequence analysis. Hidden Markov Model is a state machine in which transitions between each different state have fixed probabilities. Due to their functionality they provide a very different approach to describe sequence of variations. According to their research they try to train a model first with virus characteristics, In this model virus code acts as states and instructions of Opcode are implemented as observations. With this model it can help in detecting different type of virus which belongs to same family. As metamorphic virus use similar approach so HMM can be used to detect virus based on their similarities. There are some limitations like metamorphic virus change their shape in next generations but despite that fact there are several similarities which remain same in all generations so based on probabilities we can try to analyze files and detect them as virus if they posses higher probabilities. During their experiment they disassembled virus code and generate a long sequence of Opcode to train the model. It can use different type of sequences to train model. By using same research Authors were able to train a HMM to detect entire virus family. Once their model is fully trained it can be used to compute a log of likelihood of each virus variants by scanning multiple files. Based on Score they can detect different variants of virus. Although this technique is not fully trusted as due to assembly language it may produce some false positive response. 4.2.7 Zeroing Transformation This methodology is proposed by Lakhtia and Mohammad in [34]. Authors have proposed a possible solution to detect metamorphic viruses. First they try to reduce number of possible variant which are going to be created de to transformation of viruses. They have proposed method to reorder inner statement and reshaping expressing along variable renaming. In their research they have explained examples on how to reduce instructions from metamorphic viruses. They try to emulate the virus code. Their proposed solution is that Antivirus companies can use zero form signatures to detect full family of metamorphic virus [34] instead of having different signature of same virus variation they can use zero form signatures. According to their research they try to detect and transform different generation of metamorphic virus toward same form by providing different inputs and arrangement of inner instructions and variables. They used Code Surfer software (which is used to perform manual analysis of code), to implement and demonstrate binary transformation techniques of metamorphic virus. Based on their research they try to apply Zeroing Transformation on virus which will transform it into its zero form. In [34] they have described these steps: We are required to create a Program Tree or PT for each procedure and instructions inside the program. We can use control dependence sub graph for constructing trees. Once we have PT, We need to partition PT Nodes into reorder able sets. We need to take care that each set should contain statement which may be reordered without affecting the semantics of the program. Once we have generated sets we can generate isomorphic set sequences by partitioning re-orderable sets. These isomorphic sets should have same string representation, but it is not dependent on order of statements, order of variables or variable names. Using Depth First traversal in Program tree we need to number each statement. Statements in re-orderable sets are visited according to their sequence in isomorphic sets but statements in isomorphic sets are randomly visited. Based on the arrangement and order of statement we need to create a new program. In each expression variable name is changed with number of statement where it was first defined. By using these steps they created a tool with C Statements which was using Program Dependence Graph generated by Code Surfer to gather information about data dependencies which are required to identify statements and how to re-order those. Based on their research they proposed that using Zero Transformation we can decrease number of possible variants of metamorphic virus. This is performed by using decrease in permutation. 4.2.8 Resolution Based Detection This technique is researched by Ando, Quynh, and Takefuji and they have proposed a resolution-based detection method [19]. They have demonstrated and theoretically explained possible way to detect metamorphic viruses. By using this method they try to extras parts from virus code and reusable those parts to generate a specific signature of virus. They try to remove all type of redundancy from the virus code such as junk code and nop instructions. According to their research if a program is infected by some virus and it is in state to perform some malicious operation such as making some API calls. To get information about these call the resolution must have all information and states about those call which is going to be generated through transformation. If we get further information about this methodology we see they provide two type of reasoning, resolution and demodulation, first part tries to gather information about different type of instructions and try to decide them to simplified one. And the second part removes the junk code from it. This process help them generation a proper virus signature. 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